Exam 1 study

Abraham Maslow (1954) attempted to synthesize a large body of research related to human motivation. Prior to Maslow, researchers generally focused separately on such factors as biology, achievement, or power to explain what energizes, directs, and sustains human behavior. Maslow posited a hierarchy of human needs based on two groupings: deficiency needs and growth needs. Within the deficiency needs, each lower need must be met before moving to the next higher level. Once each of these needs has been satisfied, if at some future time a deficiency is detected, the individual will act to remove the deficiency. The second level is

Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition. First level

The third level of Abraham Maslows hierarchy of human needs is?

What are 5,6,7 of Abraham Maslows heirarchy? Pick in order

Fourth level of Abraham Maslows hierarchy of human needs is?

Self-actualization: to find self-fulfillment and realize one's potential;

Self-transcendence: to connect to something beyond the ego or to help others find self-fulfillment and realize their potential.

Maslow's basic position is that as one becomes more self-actualized and self-transcendent, one becomes more wise (develops wisdom) and automatically knows what to do in a wide variety of situations.

Fundamental Needs: hunger, thirst, sex. Prior to the adoption of agriculture human activities focused intensely on plants? Why? They are the most expedient and efficient means of satisfying hunger and thirst. 1. Plants are land adapted (rooted into the ground). They can’t run, hide or scare. That makes them easy "prey" and excepting seasonality, they are constant. 2. Plants also demand water. Where there are plants, water is sure to follow. 3. Plant resources attract many animals (including humans). They provide, therefore, a guaranteed primary food source but also the potential for secondary resource capture as other animals are also drawn to them. 4. Plants have multiple uses. For example, a fruit can be eaten for food, its seeds used in jewelry, and its juice used for beverages. 5. Plants are renewable (and less exhaustible than other resources).

Psychological Needs: belonging, love and affiliation.

Self-Actualization: Achieving one's unique potential. Who might be on that list? Albert Einstein, Abraham Lincoln, Thomas Jefferson? They made Maslow’s list. Why?Theory of Relativity, The Emancipation Proclamation and Gettysburg Address? How about The Declaration of Independence? All ideas committed to paper (plant fiber)with a pencil (wood)or ink (plant dye). In other words, all their ideas were, at a very basic level, facilitated by the use of plants! II. To summarize: To study plants is to study the history of humanity and the history of human motivation and civilization. In fact, civilization as we know it, would be impossible without plants! A. In the year 2012 world population hit a new high: 7 billion people on the face of planet Earth! 1. If current trends continue by 2050 AD there will be more than 10 billion people! And already famine, hunger and poverty rocks many countries. It seems that we have eaten ourselves out of house and home - literally! 2. So, as we move into an uncertain global future perhaps studying plants is one of the most productive and important things we can do. They have always been and are like to continue to be, the key to our very survival!

List some examples of plant uses

€�Wood” is composed of hard, fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of woody plants.The fibers are composed of cellulose which is high in tensile strength, embedded in a matrix of lignin which is resistant to compression.

What are humans?For this lecture outline there will be no corresponding reading in your textbook. However, there are web sites inserted into this lecture outline that you will be required to link to for background information that your text does not provide. I. Our last lecture outline ended with recent events, particularly that of population growth. Rapidly accelerating population rates have made us acutely aware of our dependence on the plant kingdom. So, interest in plants of actual or potential use for feeding, clothing, housing and warming mankind is imperative. A. It is also true that civilization, as we know it, would not be possible without large scale and widespread plant exploitation. So, let’s look closely at examples of how humans depend upon plants and build upon our discussion of human needs. 1. Shelter & Construction - Plants provide strong yet lightweight materials from which humans construct shelter. They are amazingly durable and they are renewable. a. “Wood” is composed of hard, fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of woody plants.The fibers are composed of cellulose which is high in tensile strength, embedded in a matrix of lignin which is resistant to compression. b. The earth provides about one trillion tonnes of wood. Much of it is harvested by people for construction. In 1991 alone, 3.5 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested. c. In addition to construction wood can also be used as furniture. d. Wood has been used for thousands of years and many archaeological artifacts attest to its utility and durability. * The most recent, and now oldest, example dates to the end of the Neolithic. Used by ancient peoples in Germany to provide structure to and lining for wells, that timbers are made of oak. Samples of the wood establish a date for use at 7,000 years ago! 2. Tools - Plants, especially wood, often form the basis of tools. This type of plant use is widely attested in the archaeological record. For example, three wooden spears found in a coal mine in Schöningen, near Hannover, Germany, are the oldest complete hunting weapons ever found. Some 380,000 to 400,000 years old, the six- to 7.5-foot javelins were found in soil whose acids had been neutralized by a high concentration of chalk near the coal pit. They suggest that early man was able to hunt, and was not just a scavenger. The development of such weapons may have been crucial to the settling of Stone Age northern Europe, whose cold climate and short daylight hours limited hunting. 3. Energy - Light from the sun is the major source of energy for the earth. Through photosynthesis plants capture light energy and store it as organic chemical energy. People can access this stored chemical energy in two ways: * The consumption of plants (food) * Combustion of plants for heat and light (fire) a. Controlled use of fire allowed ancient humans to fend off predators, migrate into regions that are otherwise too cold, and to cook foods that would otherwise to toxic. One cannot underestimate the importance of this use of plants. Please go to the web site below and read more about the discovery of fire: http://archaeology.about.com/od/ancientdailylife/qt/fire_control.htm (Links to an external site.) 4. Food - Humans cannot manufacture food directly from the major source of energy for the planet, the sun. They are heterotrophic. But plants can! These autotrophicorganisms convert the in-organic energy of the sun into organic biomass (food) which can then be used by people. 5. Oxygen - Plants are the major source of our oxygenated atmosphere. Without them animal respiration would quickly render the planet uninhabitable. As we will see in later lecture outlines, plants split water (H2O) into hydrogen and oxygen molecules. The oxygen liberated in this process is released into the atmosphere. 6. Food processing - Civilization is marked by technological innovation. Two major innovations in food are the production of alcohols and baking of cereals into bread. When great civilization arise, they become gourmands! (Link to the web site below for a brief discussion and illustration of this): http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/20.3.12/ (Links to an external site.) 7. Clothing - Some plants produce long, thin cells called fibers. Their length and strength make them excellent for weaving. Thus, very early clothes were not made of animal hides alone. They were also made of cotton, linen and such. And still are! 8. Medicine - Of the 100 most commonly prescribed drugs in the USA 22 contain active compounds derived from flowering plants. If you include fungi the grand total increases to 37! Plants were, and still are, the basis of our health and wellness.Please link to the YouTube short video (7 ½ minutes) about plants and drugs: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V2mUapYBWy8 (Links to an external site.) 9. Art/Expression - Plants and plant products can be used for making paper, dyes, paints, cosmetics, jewelry, etc. The list is quite endless. All of these items help us express who we are, where we are and how we feel. They are the noble, yet abstract, froms of cultural ideals! II. Clearly, then, plants are pivotal to human existence. But in the modern world we tend to emphasize the animal (especially the human) over the plant. How have we become so “zoochauvanistic”?! A. This answer is probably rooted in the ancient societies from which we descend. But, archaeological questions are always difficult. The main feature of an ancient civilization is that it no longer exists. That means, you can’t ask. You must interpret. So, in this case we must turn our attention to the cosmologies of the early and great City-States. 1. A cosmology is a story that attempts to explain how things got to be the way they are now. In other words, they provide context and order to the human experience. What can we learn from them that applies to this question? * Ancient Egypt - In the cosmology of ancient Egypt the god Osiris, god of vegetation who dies and is reborn, teaches humans to grow grain and make beer. It is a gift a people favored by their gods. * Ancient Greece - Here the goddess Demeter bestows upon humans the knowledge of plowing and cultivation. Again, it is divine wisdom, shared as a gift, with humans. * Ancient China - In legends of China it is the mythic second Emperor, Shen-Nung, who teaches humans to hoe and plow. He is considered a benevolent god who protects the people with divine knowledge and gifts of such. 2. The worldview here is clear: Plants and the ability to work with them are a gift of the gods to man. 3. But, the Judeo-Christian cosmology that has shaped the worldview of Western civilization, is quite different. And it certainly does not parallel the ideas of other ancient culture. Plants are often not a gift but a curse! a. God punishes Adam and Eve for eating of the forbidden fruit. b. For this fault god says: In the Sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread till thou return to the ground” - Genesis 3:19 c. Finally, man is given dominion (set above and apart from) all other thing both plant and animal. d. The message is clear; man is the center of all, plants and animals are subordinate, and labor to grow plants is just that - hard time served! III. As we have worked through this material it has become clear that humans and plants are tied together in a knot that is nothing if not Gordian! A. It is fair, then, to say, that we did not domesticate plants, they domesticated us!

The earth provides about one trillion tonnes of wood.

What is zoochauvanism?

Who are the big names associated with its development? And who was the first “ethnobotanist”? List the first botanist first and at least three of the big names.

What is ethnobotany and how old is it?

Edward Palmer, working in the North America souithwest set the standard of reporting that is still held to this day. In his seminal work Food Products of the North American Indians he established a protocol for ethnobotanical reporting which included the following criteria: Binomial name (genus species) - In a global world this is critical Folk name - The colloquial name often hold information about the plant Plant morphology - This aids greatly in taxonomic identification Native methods of collection and preparation Taste and/or nutritional value - Aids in resource ranking and diet construction

Dendrochronology- Study of the patterns of tree xylem • Theory: In cold regions the rings can be counted to give an accurate idea of the age of a tree. • Applications: have helped date archaeological ruins and reconstruct climatic histories. • Limitations: The rings produced by seasonal aridity in tropical habitats are poor age indicators because tropical aridity occurs less predictably than temperature winters. Palynology- • Theory: Is the study of plant pollen,spores, and certain microscopic plankton organisms (collectively termed palynomorphs) in both living and fossil form. • Applications: Botanists use living pollen and spores(actuopalynology) in the study of plant relationships and evolution, while geologists(palynologists) may use fossil pollen and spores(paleopalynology) to study past enviroments, stratigraphy (the analysis of strata or layered rock) historical geology and paleontology. • Limitations: Phytoliths- Theory:silica particles found inside the cells of many plants, and starch grains have become increasingly important in identifying fossilized plant remains as domesticated or wild. Applications : Determine most primitive genotypes and, from them the original area of original domestication. Radiocarbon Theory:Once fossils are found they can be dated. It uses the natural occurance of 14C. Read pg.24. Application:Since its development by Willard Libby in the 1940s, radiocarbon (14C) dating has become one of the most essential tools in archaeology. Radiocarbon dating was the first chronometric technique widely available to archaeologists and was especially useful because it allowed researchers to directly date the panoply of organic remains often found in archaeological sites including artifacts made from bone, shell, wood, and other carbon based materials. In contrast to relative dating techniques whereby artifacts were simply designated as "older" or "younger" than other cultural remains based on the presence of fossils or stratigraphic position, 14C dating provided an easy and increasingly accessible way for archaeologists to construct chronologies of human behavior and examine temporal changes through time at a finer scale than what had previously been possible Limitations: However, as with any dating technique there are limits to the kinds of things that can be satisfactorily dated, levels of precision and accuracy, age range constraints, and different levels of susceptibility to contamination. Radiocarbon dating is especially good for determining the age of sites occupied within the last 26,000 years or so (but has the potential for sites over 50,000), can be used on carbon-based materials (organic or inorganic), and can be accurate to within ±30-50 years. Probably the most important factor to consider when using radiocarbon dating is if external factors, whether through artificial contamination, animal disturbance, or human negligence, contributed to any errors in the determinations. For example, rootlet intrusion, soil type (e.g., limestone carbonates), and handling of the specimens in the field or lab (e.g., accidental introduction of tobacco ash, hair, or fibers) can all potentially affect the age of a sample. Bioturbation by crabs, rodents, and other animals can also cause samples to move between strata leading to age reversals. Shell may succumb to isotopic exchange if it interacts with carbon from percolating ground acids or recrystallization when shell aragonite transforms to calcite and involves the exchange of modern calcite. The surrounding environment can also influence radiocarbon ages. The introduction of "old" or "artificial" carbon into the atmosphere (i.e., the "Suess Effect" and "Atom Bomb Effect", respectively) can influence the ages of dates making them appear older or younger than they actually are. This is a major concern for bone dates where pretreatment procedures must be employed to isolate protein or a specific amino acid such as hydroxyproline (known to occur almost exclusively in bone collagen) to ensure accurate age assessments of bone specimens. Alone, or in concert, these factors can lead to inaccuracies and misinterpretations by archaeologists without proper investigation of the potential problems associated with sampling and dating. To help resolve these issues, radiocarbon laboratories have conducted inter-laboratory comparison exercises (see for example, the August 2003 special issue of Radiocarbon), devised rigorous pretreatment procedures to remove any carbon-containing compounds unrelated to the actual sample being dated, and developed calibration methods for terrestrial and marine carbon. Shells of known age collected prior to nuclear testing have also been dated (http://radiocarbon.pa.qub.ac.uk/marine) to ascertain the effects of old carbon (i.e., local marine reservoir effects). A. Dendrochronology - Tree ring analysis. Any archaeological excavation must place a site and culture within the frame of time. If a scientific technique can be applied to a sample it is referred to as an absolute date. A date can also be obtained by assessing stye, or through an anecdotal count (such as a history) but those are considered relative dates. 1. Dendrochronology is an absolute dating technique. Put simply, it is the study of past climate event through tree ring growth. a. Botanists, foresters and archaeologists began using this technique during the early part of the 20th century. Discovered by A.E. Douglass from the University of Arizona who noted that the wide rings of certain species of trees were produced during wet years and, inversely, narrow rings during dry seasons. Each ring, therefore, represents a year and it’s associated climate. b. So, any wood can be used for this analysis; a timber from a house for example. c. Labs that specialize in dendrochronology extract a “core” from the specimen submitted and them mount them into a stable platform that can then be viewed under a microscope. d. The rings are them compared to a chronology that has been established over years of accepting specimens. The rings of the sample are then compared to the sequence for that tree species and a date in assigned. http://ltrr.arizona.edu/about/treerings (Links to an external site.) e. And the climate fluctuations (wet to dry) are also reported. f. These sequences are ever expanding as more excavation brings in new samples. For example, Bristlecone Pine samples for SE California now allow scientists to see a history of climate that spans over 8,000 years! B. Phytoliths - “Plant Stones”. These microscopic pieces of data are not made of plants at all. But they are microscopic fossils that attests to the structure of the plant of which they were once a part by creating a durable, fossilized “cast” of the form that was once there. 1. The principle is simple; some plants take in silica from the soil. This silica is deposited in various cellular structures of the plant body. As the plant itself decays in the ground, the silica remains and becomes fossilized. a. The phytolith then becomes an inverse image of the plant body itself and can, therefore be sued to identify the plant. 2. By the 1970's archaeologists began to use this technique in earnest to track prehistoric plant use in a general sense and plant domestication in particular. a. We will refer to this type of data frequently as we look at the domestication of grains. C. Palynology - Pollen. Plant pollen is everywhere (as any person with allergies will confirm). It is blown by wind, scattered by water and carried by animals. Once deposited in an archaeological site it will quickly fossilize, thus attesting to the plant that produced it. 1. Like a plant itself, pollen grains are morphologically unique. Thus it is like a “finger print”. a. During excavation archaeologists will carefully prepare dirt samples that can be sent to a lab that specialized in pollen analysis. b. At the lab, the soil sample will be exposed to a series of chemical washes designed to lift or float the pollen away from the heavier soil. c. The pollen can then be skimmed off, plated and examined microscopically. d. A list of plants can then be produced. These, for the archaeologist, provides clues at to the environment present at the site at the time of occupation, and the types of plants that would have been available for human use. e. But, this data must be evaluated carefully. Because the distribution of pollen is never ending, contamination from modern pollen must be carefully assessed. D. Radiocarbon (C14) - Shell, wood, bone. This analysis can be applied to a wide range of materials; anything that is/was organic can be used. 1. The concept is quite simple; Carbon 14 (C14) is a radioactive isotope. It is the result of the bombardment of the earth by cosmic rays. The chemical equation that depicts this is: N14 + n ⇒C14 + H1(unstable) 2. Because it is radioactive (unstable) it will release a beta particle to return to it’s stable form: C14 ⇒ß-+N14 3. As a result of this process very small amounts of C14 distribute throughout the atmosphere and combine with carbon to from carbon dioxide. a. Via photosynthesis carbon dioxide enters plants and they are them eaten by animals (organic organisms). In this way all living things take in C12 and C14. This process in ongoing and thus the ratio of C12 and C14 remains constant until death. b. After death, C14 is no longer taken in. It will decay over time. c. The rate of decay is known and does not vary from organism to organism. The rate of decay is 5730 ± 40. Note that the ± reflects a margin of error as post industrialization has exacerbated the atmospheric levels of C14 by dint of the burning of fossil fuels. d. So, by measuring the amount of C14 reaming in the specimen one can calculate back in time to establish a date. e. But one must take into consideration to cautions: 1) Because C!4 will be totally decayed at a ceratin point, it cannot be used to date very old samples. It has an upper end of ab0ut 50,000 years. And 2) it can be easily contaminated during collection by exposure to other organic compounds.

Dendrochronology is

Phytoliths are

Palynology

Radiocarbon is

The study of surviving societies is Anthropology and a written account of those cultures is an ethnography. The study of ancient cultures is archaeology. (Note that in archaeology one must interpret the data because those societies are dead. You cannot verify your ideas with living informants.)

Artifact: But the type of data we will be discussing here is different. As we approach the lecture on Origins of Agriculture we must deal with reconstruction not only life ways but also paleoenvironments. This requires interpreting plant materials from archaeological contexts that were not modified by man but were deposited as a natural consequence of the ecosystem in which the culture existed. This type of data is referred to as an artifact

Ecofact: But the type of data we will be discussing here is different. As we approach the lecture on Origins of Agriculture we must deal with reconstruction not only life ways but also paleoenvironments. This requires interpreting plant materials from archaeological contexts that were not modified by man but were deposited as a natural consequence of the ecosystem in which the culture existed. This type of data is referred to as an ecofact.

Artifact: Pieces of data that are clearly made and/or modified by man are called artifacts. They may be constructed out of plants. Some examples may be baskets (plant fibers), clothing, (plant fibers), construction beams (wood), and jewelry (seeds)

What is foraging and how does it work? Foraging for wild plants and hunting wild animals is the most ancient of human subsistence patterns. - how much of the diet? In the tropical habitats occupied by many of these existing hunters, plant collecting is more reliable than hunting itself.The daily per-capita subsistence yield for the Dobe Bushmen was 2,140 calories. However, taking into account body weight, normal activities, and the age-sex composition of the Dobe population, Lee estimates the people require only 1,975 calories per capita. Some of the surplus food probably went to the dogs, who ate what the people left over. "The conclusion can be drawn that the Bushmen do not lead a substandard existence on the edge of starvation as has been commonly supposed." - how big a territory? approximately 1-5 square miles of foraging territory for each member of the group. - why small groups? Because the territory size.average size 23-50 - how old is it? Millions of years. - how successful is it? Extremely successful * What do we know from the paleo-record - Early hominids and diet: Data shows that Paranthropus robustus had a diverse diet ranging from fruits and nuts to sedges, grasses, seeds and perhaps even animals B. Australopithecus sediba (about 2 million years ago) discoveries have also added data to the early diet. The teeth of one mandible (lower jaw) contained over 40 phytoliths which were analyzed. The identification of these reveals a diet that is almost exclusive to leaves, fruits, wood and bark. C. As early man moved out of Africa he began to expand the diet taking advantage of forage grasses and tubers. Eventually supplements of small game animals would add to the diets diversity. D. These strategies allowed early hominids to explore and populate the entire old world. They were clearly successful.

) A. Oasis Theory - V. G. Childe. In his 1928 book, "The Most Ancient Near-East", he popularizes Oasis Theory arguing that the reason people starting living in settlements was because during a dry spell, the only livable place was near oases. 1. The enforced clustering of humans, animals, and plants led to the domestication of all three, or so the theory goes. a. But, if this is true one should find evidence of this type of climate in the pale record via pollen and dendro samples. No. Climate data for the time actually shows that at the time, the climate of the region was getting warmer and wetter rather than hotter and drier. b. Today, therefore archaeologists reject his theory. So why mention it? Note that it ushered in an era of “testable” hypotheses about the remote past. And that is how science works, eh? c. The rejection of Oasis Theory, resulted in Childe diverting the Discussion to the idea of “Neolithic Revolution”. This focused attention on the radical and fundamental shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture. And indeed it was a complete transformation of human subsistence. 2. Hilly Flanks- Robert Braidwood. By 1948 new data and new ideas began to foment. This theory proposed that agriculture began on hilly mountainous flanks (notable in the Taurus and Zagros mountains) where diverse plants and animals lent themselves to domestication in a warm. Wet climate. 1. Data does support this idea, but the “universality” of any idea is questionable. What about areas outside of the Near east? 3. Eureka!/Dump Heap - Edgar Anderson. In 1952 Anderson puts forward a new idea. 1. He suggests that agriculture was quite unintentional; humans dumped their trash near their cluster of dwellings this included seeds as well as remains of plants & animals. This created compost so ground became more fertile than the surrounding land, hence the plants grew better here. a. Finally so brilliant individuals then realized that these plants could be grown in an organized "dump heap" or garden and agriculture was born. 2. Sounds plausible but there are flaws. You have to make too many assumptions for Anderson to be correct. Consider the following: Humans must be sedentary to grow plants. Not true. Studies of many servicing non-agricultural societies show that you can plant then leave then return for the harvest. You don’t necessarily have to wait and watch. Useful plants are most likely to be planted in refuse heaps. Not true. All animals, humans in particular, are compartmentalize an\bout their use of space. Waste is usually kept far away from habitation areas. Useful plants are like to be discovered in dump heaps. Now this one is likely true. Archaeologists love trash heaps because they represent all aspect of material culture. Remnants of selected food products are like to be here. A “wise old savage” is required to start the process. Most untrue. If you are a forager you are, for all purposes, a sophisticated applied botanists. It is likely that you know how to grow plants if it is worth it! It’s usually just not worth it. A quote fro one such group summarizes it nicely as follows: “You people go to all that trouble working and planting seeds, but we don’t have to do that. All these things are there for us, the ancestral being left them for us. In the end, you depend on the sun and rain just as we do but the difference is that we just have to go out and collect the food when it is ripe. We don’t have all this other trouble” 4. Demograohic Theory - Carl Sauer (and then popularized by Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery). These theory proposes that for whatever reason (and the reasons may be various) settlements arose. In areas that had greater food supplies villages developed. And people then sought to ensure constant food supplies near to them. 1. This seems palatable. As we have seen, to forage you need a great deal of territory. If you are staying put (for whatever reason) you must find a new subsistence strategy. II. What have we learned form all these theories? Quite a bit actually. Consider the following points that we can assume to be true: Foragers are sophisticated applied botanists. Their life, quite literally, depends on it. Humans are prepared to grow plants if it is worth it. For example, maybe its not worth it for a snack. But it might be worth it for a medicine. Climate change was not a death knell. It was actually warmer and wetter in the areas of earliest domestication. A. So why farm when it is a much harder way of life? 1. Every where you see a center of origin, you see a population boom. So, perhaps humans outgrew their resources and lack of resources made it harder to migrate into new areas. Or perhaps the growing of plants (which is labor intensive) requires “ feet in the field” and thus greater numbers. 2. OR perhaps humans and plants evolved together in an unintended way. As humans select the foods they want they are favoring certain characteristics in plants. These plants then out thrive “wild” relatives and are well on the road to domestication (and so are the people around them). 3. Maybe its more simple than that. Humans are quite deliberate and set in their choices - especially where “food” is concerned. Anything that has calories and nutrients could be food. But its not. a. Consider a local folk story. The crops of the Mormon settlers of Utah were miraculously saved from hoards of insects by seagulls. From the perspective of optimal foraging, wouldn’t it be best to kill the seagulls, herd to bugs (rich in protein and easy capture) into pits and have a big feast?! Yes...but bugs aren’t food! You get the point. b. In the end perhaps people just committed to working harder for the foods they wanted rather than live easier on the food they didn’t prefer. 4. A combination of all is likely. Local conditions can vary greatly as does the human response to them. a. The process of domestication was probably a gradual one as is the entire story of human evolution. What are the four theories and who proposed them?

George Armelagos and his colleagues then at the University of Massachusetts show these early farmers paid a price for their new-found livelihood. Compared to the hunter-gatherers who preceded them, the farmers had a nearly 50 per cent increase in enamel defects indicative of malnutrition, a fourfold increase in iron-deficiency anemia (evidenced by a bone condition called porotic hyperostosis), a theefold rise in bone lesions reflecting infectious disease in general, and an increase in degenerative conditions of the spine, probably reflecting a lot of hard physical labor. "Life expectancy at birth in the pre-agricultural community was bout twenty-six years," says Armelagos, "but in the post-agricultural community it was nineteen years. So these episodes of nutritional stress and infectious disease were seriously affecting their ability to survive."

1. All naming now follows the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature and must follow, at a basic level, the binomial formula - a genus name (noun) and a Species name (adjective). a. Examples: Helianthus annus - sunflower, sun annual Pinus edulis - pine tree, pine edible Hordeum vulgare - barley, barley common 2. The entire range of a taxonomic system is as follows (with areas of concern for use identified in bold): Kingdom - Plantae Division - Anthophyta, always ends in -phyta Class - Monocot or Dicot, always ends in -opsida Order - Always ends in -ales Family - Always ends in -aceae Brassicaceae, Cactaceae, Fabaceae, Orchidaceae, Lauraceae Exceptions - Composite now Astercaeae Legume now Fabaceae Graminae now Poaceae Umbelliferae now Apiaceae Cruciferous now Brassicaceae Genus - Always capitalized, always nouns Species Never capitalized, adjectives, never appear without genus . List in order the taxonomic system.

What were the two original kingdoms?

What are the five basic kingdoms of organisms? ( Monera and Protista have since been divided to accommodate things like viruses and bacteria

Within the division of Anthophyta we encounter flowering plants, a group of plants whose seeds are borne within a mature ovary(fruit). What is another name for them?

How many known species of Angiosperms are there?

Dicot (65,000)

All naming now follows the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature and must follow, at a basic level, the binomial formula - a genus name (noun) and a Species name (adjective).